Peppered Moth Lab Report Essay Example

Peppered Moth Lab Report Paper Explain how natural selection relates to survival of the fittest concept Natural Selection is when organisms with better adaptations live longer and reproduce in greater numbers and the concept of survival of the fittest is the idea that production is the most important thing and the ultimate goal is to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on your genes because this means that your genes will stay in the same population. These two concepts relate because of their common idea of reproduction and the passing on of genes that better help the species to stay alive in their environment. . What determines whether a particular variation is an adaptation or not? A particular variation can be determined as an adaptation if you see the species with a certain variation better surviving than those without the specific variation. If this is seen then it can be determined that the variation is an adaptation because it helped the species survive better in their environment. 3. What changes are evident in the graphs from Pre-longitudinal Revolution (Part I) and Post-Industrial Revolution (Part Ill)? Use examples from your data (graphs and/or tables). Evident changes that occurred between the Pre-longitudinal Revolution and Post-Industrial Revolution were the number of Black Moths remaining at the end of the five trials went up in Part Ill compared to Part l. For example, in Part I at the end of the fifth trial there were nine black moths engaging and twenty-one white moths remaining but at the end of the fifth trial in Part Ill the numbers were reversed and there were twenty-one Black Moths remaining and only nine White Moths remaining. This shows how the Black Moths increased and the awaited Moths decreased. 4. What is the driving force that caused the number of white and black Peppered Moth in the Manchester, England population to change? The driving force that caused the number of white and black Peppered Moth population to change was the Industrial Revolution during the late sasss when smoke particles produced y developing industry began to blacken the trunks of the trees on which the moths rested. We will write a custom essay sample on Peppered Moth Lab Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Peppered Moth Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Peppered Moth Lab Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This made the black moths blend in better with the trees so they were better protected from predators than the white moths who were more visible on the dark trees. As a result there was a change in the population and the black moth population increased and white moth population decreased. 5. Which moth had a higher fitness during the Industrial Revolution? Define fitness in your answer The black moth had higher fitness during the Industrial Revolution because it was able to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on TTS genes. Therefore the black moths genes will stay in the population. Overall, it was more fit than the white moth because it reproduced more and survived better than the white moth. 6. What is the independent (manipulated) variable in this activity (Parts l, II, and Ill)? (hint: this variable is graphed on the x-axis) The independent variable is the number of trials performed. 7. What is the dependent (responding) variable in this activity (Parts l, II, and Ill)? (hint: this variable is graphed on the y-axis). The dependent variable is the number of moths remaining after each trial. Extra-credit Question: . What aspect of natural selection (evolution) does the following step in the activity represent: At the end of each trial, replace each black moth removed with a white moth. Replace each white moth removed with a black moth. Explain your answer. Speciation is the aspect of evolution that best represents the white and black moths being replaced by each other. This activity shows how favorable adoptions gradually accumulate in the population and overtime the adaptation overtakes the entire population and a new species is eventually forms. This activity represents the process of speciation.

Tensile testing of metallic materials

Tensile testing of metallic materials Introduction When we refer to mechanical properties of materials, whatever crosses the mind is the stress-strain curve. Ideally, both shear stress (ÏÆ') and strain (ÃŽ µ) testing are inevitable when it comes to material testing. While shear stress testing correlates an elongation force to the cross sectional area of a material, tensile testing subjects a material sample to a controlled tensional force until the yield point where the material fails. The essence of performing these tests is that they aid in quality control, selection of a material meant for a specific application, and gives a glimpse of how a material would behave under varied forces. Importantly, the parameters obtained directly as a result of these tests are maximum elongation, definitive tensile strength and reduced cross-section area. In a nutshell, from aforementioned parameters one is in a better position to determine the Poisons ratio, Young’s modulus (Ε), strain-hardening, and yield strength charact eristics. Ideally, some of the parameters can easily be obtained from the graph of stress versus strain (stress-strain curve) graph as shown in the figure 1 below.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Tensile testing of metallic materials specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In simple terms, stress is the ratio of the elongation force to that of the cross sectional area whiles the stress is the ration of extension to that of the original length. From the graph (Fig. 1), one can obtain the Young modulus from the linear section of the curve by finding the gradient of the section (between 1 and 2). Analyzing the graph in details, it is important to note that point 1 is the true elastic limit which coincides with the minimum stress that emanates from dislocations due to material movements (Egarmo, Black, Kohser 2003). However, this parameter is hardly used in material science; nonetheless, it reflects a material’s chem ical properties. Between points 1 and 2, the material obeys the Hook’s Law. Between points 2 and 3, the material experiences elastic deformation. Finally, beyond point 3, the material is described as plastic since it has undergone permanent deformation and it rapture at point 5. It is worth noting that there are some other materials that have irregular linear sections. As such, an offset yield strength (point 4), 0.2% of the origin is plotted for the sake of material comparisons. Other parameters that can be obtained from the graph are shown in the figure 2 and 3 below: Advertising Looking for report on natural sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Basically, the tensile strength is the maximum stress while fracture stress is the stress at the fracture point. On the other hand, strain to fracture is the maximum strain at the point where the material fractures. Point 1 on figure 3 is the yield strength whil e sections A and B represent strain hardening and the necking region respectively. It is significant to note that the y-axis of the stress-strain graph represents the strength properties while the x-axis represents the ductility properties. As such, figures 1 and 3 represent the typical trends of brittle (e.g. concrete) and ductile (e.g. steel) materials respectively. Their respective behaviors are owed to the fact that brittle materials do not undergo strain hardening, consequently breaking without notice. In the literature that follows we are going to analyze a number of materials (carbon steels, aluminum, copper, perspex and LDPE (Low Density Polythene)) and classify them accordingly. The obtained data will then be compared to their actual properties in literature (Groover 2007). Background literature Material science is a multidisciplinary subject that incorporates both scientific and engineering aspects. To this end, it links the microscopic properties of a material at its mole cular level to its larger macroscopic properties. In a synopsis, it encompasses both chemistry and applied physics. This discipline is vital in many aspects of life, for instance, in aeronautical field, is significant in forensic engineering or failure analysis in case of an accident. Vitally, the physical properties exhibited by a material are a manifestation of the chemical composition, and the ensuing processes (thermal) that eventuated in the formation of a final product. Basically, the ensuing thermal processes determine a sample’s micro-structure and hence its physical properties. With regards to the scope of this report, we will limit our analysis to carbon steels, aluminum, copper, perspex and LDPE. Also known as carbon steel, steel is an alloy with the main trace element being carbon. The degree of carbon should; however, not be more than 2%. In essence, â€Å"the term carbon steel may be used to refer to steel that is not stainless steel† (Adelbert 1992). The degree of carbon concentration alters the physical properties of steel.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Tensile testing of metallic materials specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, with an increased carbon concentration steel becomes less ductile, hard and stronger, and reduces welding ability. Nevertheless, the melting point decreases. Basing on the â€Å"carbon concentration, steel can be classified into four categories: low and mild carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel and ultra-high carbon steel† (Alexander Street1976). Low and mild carbon steel represent steel with the lowest carbon concentrations, and the most commonly used in market. Basically, for these types, the carbon concentration is less than 0.6%. Vitally, low carbon steel (or A36) has a carbon concentration of approximately 0.05-0.3% while the mild carbon steel (1040) exhibits a concentration of roughly 0.3-0.6%. As a consequence, this enhances the metal’s malleability and ductility characteristics. However, of the two, mild steel exhibits a relatively low tensile strength. Nonetheless, the tensile strength varies depending on the annealing temperatures and whether the metal is hot or cold rolled. To this end, A36 has a tensile strength of between 400-500 MPa while 1040 has roughly 520-590 MPa (Ashby David 1992). With a carbon content range of approximately 0.3-1.7% carbon steels can successfully undergo heat-treatment. These steels are referred to as high carbon steels and they include the medium, high and ultra-high carbon steels. Importantly, the trace elements are normally added to modify their properties. For instance, â€Å"sulfur makes steel crumbly and brittle at working temperatures† (Day 1988). Moreover, manganese often increases ‘hardenability’ of these steels. Narrowing down to the specifics, medium carbon steel has a carbon content of approximately 0.3-0. 59% by weight. As such, it balances strength and ductility, and it exhibits good wear resistance. As such, it is preferred in automotive industry. With a carbon content of approximately 0.6-0.99% (4140), high carbon steel exhibits relatively high strengths thus, it finds application in springs. Finally, ultra-high carbon steel (1-2% carbon content) exhibits unprecedented hardness vital in making axels and knives. Aluminum is among the world’s most abundant elements. As such, it accounts for 8.1% by weight of the total earth’s crust. Pure aluminum is a distinct metal that finds application in a diverse field. In essence, whatever makes aluminum distinct are its physical properties. Basically, â€Å"It is a soft, light, and gray metal that resists corrosion when pure in spite of its chemical activity because of a thin surface layer of oxide† (Bray 1947).Advertising Looking for report on natural sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, it exhibits both malleability and ductility characteristics that makes it unsuitable for structural use. Ideally, the Young’s modulus â€Å"of pure aluminum is 10 x 106 psi, the shear modulus 3.8 x 106 psi, Poissons ratio 0.33, and the ultimate tensile strength 10,000 psi, with 60% elongation† (Bray 1947). With these properties it finds application, for example, piping, cable sheathing and electric conductors. Copper is an important element that has been mined for ages. In most cases, it is obtained as a by-product in the extraction of silver. This metal appears as a yellowish-red element. It has good electrical conductivity and hence finds application in electric industry. Among the material properties is that it is ductile, malleable and tough. Chemically, it is resistant to rust. Basically, it has a modulus of elasticity that is equivalent to 117Gpa and a tensile strength of 200-400 Mpa. Perspex is a unique material that is distinguished by its clarity. It has unsurpassed light transmission ability. Moreover, it can come in a variety of shades. It exhibits durability in color retention irrespective of the condition that it is exposed to. Importantly, its mechanical properties are such that it is has a tensile strength of 75 MPa, has an elongation of 4% and modulus of 2.5 GPa. Finally, LDPE is the first ever synthesized polythene that was first processed in the year 1933. In appearance, they are translucent and thin in nature, and come in many shades. Notably, it has low crystallinity that is responsible for a low modulus of elasticity (200-400 MPa). Moreover, it is highly ductile in nature in spite of a low temperature condition. As such, it elongates by 600-650% before it breaks. Its tensile strength is between 8-10%. With these properties, it finds application in the package industries, laboratories (wash bottles) and also in electronics industries (insulating circuits). Experimental Procedure In this experiment, a tensile test mac hine (Zwick-Roell 1474) was used. The materials to be tested were steels (at 0.1 and 0.8% carbon content) (diameter = 5.04 mm, length = 12.5 mm), pure aluminum (diameter = 5.04 mm, lenght = 12.5 mm), copper 12 (diameter 5.04 mm), perspex (32 mm thick, 10.22 mm width and 110 mm long) and LDPE (32 mm thick and 9.98 mm width and 110 mm long). The parameters that were recorded include extension, force, stain and stress. From these parameters, graphs of force-extension, stress-strain, and the linear part of stress-strain were plotted. From the last graph, the values for modulus of elasticity were obtained and compared. Also, a bar graph comparing all the modulus was also plotted. Results The measured parameters are treated according to the formulae below: Stress = extension/original length = ∆l/l0 Stress = Force/cross sectional area = F/C.A The area A of a circle is given by á ´ ¨r2 while that of a rectangular face is obtained from the products of thickness and width. It should be noted that all the units are in SI units. The below trends were obtained from the parameters obtained. Discussion The objective of this report was to analyze the mechanical properties of a number of materials including carbon steels (0.1 and 0.8% carbon), aluminum, copper, perspex and LDPE. The aim was to compare their modulus of elasticity and confirm that they agree with the literature values. From the analysis, it was confirmed that the experiment achieved its objectives. To begin with, the trends of the curves exhibited the expected patterns. Like it was anticipated, low carbon steel (steel with 0.1% carbon) exhibited malleability properties attested by the presence of strain hardening section (Graph 2). On the other hand, steel with 0.8% carbon content exhibited a trend that is synonymous with the brittle materials (graph 4). This was no exception to aluminum which is brittle in nature, and as such, it fractures without notice. Just like the low carbon steel , both copper and LDPE exhibited strain hardening before fracture. To this end, they are both malleable and ductile. Contrary to the other materials, perspex exhibited a prolonged elastic behavior without deformation. However, it breaks abruptly once the elastic limit is exceeded. When we compare the modulus of elasticity, just like we anticipated, steel is the strongest of all the materials and this explains why it finds application in construction industry. On the other hand, LDPE is the weakest of all the materials, confirming why it finds application in the packaging industry. Generally, the values obtained for the modulus of elasticity did not tally with the expected values. This could be attributed to experimental errors in the course of the experiment. One of the errors might have emanated from imprecise measurements because of the degree of accuracy of the measuring equipment. Future experiments ought to consider the use of computerized machines to take accurate data. Refere nces Adelbert, P M 1992, Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Alexander, W Street A 1976, Metals in the Service of Man, 6th ed., Pelican Books, London. Ashby, M F David, J 1992, Chapter 12. Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford, Pergamon Press. Bray, JL 1947, Non-Ferrous Production Metallurgy, John Wiley Sons, New York. Day, J 1988, The Bristol Brass Industry: Furnaces and their associated remains, Journal of Historical Metallurgy, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 24. Egarmo, E, Black, J T Kohser, A 2003, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.). John Wiley Sons, New York. Groover, M P 2007, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes and Systems (3rd ed), John Wiley Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

Downsizing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Downsizing - Essay Example Downsizing would seem a better option out of the two which Terry Wilson can choose between downsizing and expanding his business realms. Downsizing would cut down on the costs while expanding his business would mean that he would have to incur more costs. Hence a better alternative under this scenario would be to lay off those employees whom he thinks are incapable of delivering the goods when the going gets tough for Tuscan Treasures. Keeping in line with the discussion here, the growth strategy that would work to good effect here would be one of downsizing. It will handle all the situations related with the employees and bring to a single level the cost issue where it starts getting out of hand. Another growth strategy would be to cut down on extra costs which would mean more incentives for the organization in the long run. This would mean that the organization grows as a whole and keeps its costs under a certain level. The third growth strategy which could be used here comprises of the diversification within small business domains but not actually expanding the business. This shall bring forth more profits for the company than it is getting at the present. The possible causes of Wilson’s company’s decline include the fact that there are significant issues which need to be resolved at the earliest. The employees are being delegated tasks well and hence not being given their share within the organizational settings.

My Old Neighborhood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

My Old Neighborhood - Essay Example To start with, few years ago I went back to Benzie County found in Michigan State. This is where I grew up and made a lot of childhood friends. As I walked through the town from the train station, I saw various buildings that reminded me of my childhood age. Surprisingly, I bumped on one of my childhood friends by the name Christine, who worked at a law firm that was closely located to the train station. As the fate would have it, we got into a nearby restaurant where we shared a lot about our current lives and our childhood memories. Since Christine took up a job in Benzie County after completion of college education, she had seen a lot of transformation that took place in the county over the years. She enlightened me about other childhood friends who also decided to stay in Benzie County and also about political transformations that shaped the evident changes in the county. However, the stories by Christine were not striking compared to what I saw since I related what I saw to the memories of my childhood period. Firstly, as I was heading to the estate where I actually lived with my parents, I recounted how the tarmac road was well maintained by the local authority and plenty of vegetations were planted by the road side through a beautification program that was initiated by the then county clerk of Benzie County. In most weekends during my childhood, I spend my afternoons with my friends, at a section of the road that was not commonly used by vehicles, while skating. The reasons for using the section of the road were that the smooth surface was essential for good skating and there was an attractive atmosphere, which was cool because of the water used to irrigate flowers planted by the road. Apart from the road where I frequented for the skating sessions, there was a well kept playground located near our estate. The field was very attractive due to the presence of green vegetation at the edges and well trimmed

World Religions Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

World Religions Report - Essay Example The Jehovah’s witnesses postulated the non-existence of hell, the non-existence of the Trinity, reduced the Holy Spirit from a person to a force and believed in the mortality of the soul. Similarly they do not celebrate Christmas as they do not celebrate holidays or birthdays. According to them Jesus never commanded Christians to celebrate his birth. On the other hand, he asked his disciples to memorize or remember his death. Thus, the most important annual event for the Jehovah witness is the commemoration of Jesus’ death. They also do not believe in the Christian doctrine of Trinity, the concept of the three persons in God- the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit. To support its doctrines, the Watchtower organization (which is the author and teacher of all official Jehovahs Witness theology), has even altered the Bible to make it agree with its changing and non-Christian teachings. The lives of Jehovah’s disciples are thus governed by their understanding of the scr ipture as interpreted by the Watchtower Bible and Tract society of New York. For them Jehovah is the Supreme Being and creator of everything and Jesus is only yet another creation of this supreme entity. Even though they don’t believe Jesus to be the son of God, they believe that Jesus’ death was necessary for the atonement of the sins committed by the first man Adam. They strongly believe in the Word of God and resort to preaching as a major part of their missionary life. Thus, one finds the Jehovah witnesses moving from door to door, house to house preaching about God’s kingdom and interpreting the Bible. For them, â€Å"living by Bible principles gives purpose to life, promotes strong family ties, and develops productive and honest citizens.† (Jehovah’s Witnesses, 2004). Thus, they try to promote Bible education through preaching and the distribution of Bibles and Bible study aids. Until

Historical and Contemporary Theories of Sight

Historical and Contemporary Theories of Sight Introduction Sight is one of the most stimulant senses in our body. When we are born, assuming everything went well, we open our eyes to experience our world. But throughout our history, we theorized how we are able to see. What causes us to see? What phenomenon gives us this gift? Many great minds tried to figure out these questions, even though a lot of these people were wrong, it set a path for future scientist to base their work and try to find the correct answer. We come to know that light is the main component of sight; the eye is able to bend it and produce color and images. It is important to understand the past in order to understand the present. One of the first theories would be the Emission theory. Of course it’s been replaced, but it is a significant part of the history of optics At the time, a challenging theory was the â€Å"Intro-mission† approach. Both these theories helped led a path for scientist to understand the true understanding. It allowed many scholars to choose sides and try to prove the other wrong. Then came modern theorist, first being Hermann Von Helmholtz. And like many theories, it was challenged by Ewald Hering theory â€Å"opponent process†. Throughout the 1800’s, many scientists argued theories about color and sight. One of the biggest topics was the theory of color; many scientists came up with theories and team up with other scientist to try to figure out how color is created. In the 1900’s the Gestalt theory raised many questions by people who study the science of vision. This essay is to answer, how the human eye operates by analyzing past and modern theories about sight. It is important to know how our body works, especially one of the most important sense, sight. Historic Theories The Atomists In ancient Greek, many people believed in gods and supernatural powers, but then there were the Atomists. They were the first who were able to come up with neutral, non-religious ideas. Democritus, who lived between 460 B.C .E– 370 B.C.E, stated that the air between the eye and the object that is seen is â€Å"contracted and stamped† by the object and the eye that observed it. The air holds the various colures of the object and appears in the observing eye. Then there was Epicurus, (341 B.C.E -270 B.C.E), stated that particles flow from the object into the eye, but the body would not shrink because other particles will replace the empty space. Both of these theories are based on the same principle, the object can only be seen if it directly comes into contact with an observing eye. For Democritus, the essential part of vision is air. For Epicurus, the presence of particles is the most essential part. Democritus discoveries were pretty close to right. He stated that ther e were four basic colors, white, black, red and green. Democritus was right about two of the colors. Plato Another theorist, who lived around the same time as the Atomists, is Plato (427 B.C.E. – 347 B.C.E). Plato’s theory combines the intromission theory, like the Atomists, and the emission theory, which states that light hitting the eye is the cause of vision. Plato stated that a ray comes from the observing eye, so the light will only let the same ray to pass through. The inner light in the eye fuses with sunlight to form a â€Å"homogeneous body†, located directly with the eye. The object being observed lets of â€Å"Flame Particles†, similar to the concept by Epicures. If the object being observed is placed within the homogeneous body, the particle has the ability to enter the eye and soul, casing sight. Stated by Plato, colors come from the flame particles from an object. When compared to the ray, there are three different types of color. If the size of the object’s particle is equal to the size of the ray, then the object is transparent. If the pa rticles are bigger, then it is a dark color. If the particles are smaller, then it’s a light color. Aristotle Aristotle (384 B.C.E – 322 B.C.E), relied on his senses and put his faith in his results of his observations. Aristotle could not prove the theories of the Atomists and Plato, so he went against them and came up with his own theory. Aristotle strongly believed that light could not be solid because it was not fire or a physical object. So what is light? Aristotle observed that objects, such as fire, can produce light on its own. Light must not be a physical material, but an immaterial transparent particle. To Aristotle, the emission and intromission theory did not make sense. If our eyes produce casual rays, then we should be able to see at any situation. But we cannot see with our eyes closed or in a very dark place. Aristotle disagreed with Plato because he could not find an explanation how light can collide with sunlight. Aristotle’s theory of sight was considered advance for its time, sunlight is reflected by an object and then transmitted through a medium to the eye (which is basic knowledge for modern theories). The only way vision can occur, is when a medium is in between the eye and an object. If you put an object in front of your eyes, you most likely won’t be able to see it (or slightly see it) due to there not being a medium in between the eye and object. What is this medium? Aristotle believes that this medium must be transparent, so we can see through it and see the object. Color lies on the object and allows motion to the transparent medium. This allows light to be transmitted to your eye. Vision occurs when color and medium interact with each other. Aristotle was also interested by the anatomy of the eye. He concluded, after cutting eyes of animals that the eye consists of three coasts covering a humor. Euclid and Ptolemy Euclid theorized about the geometrical aspects of vision. Euclid came up with the emission theory, since it involved visual rays that derive from the eye. But unfortunately, he cannot explain why one can perceive things. However, he does describe the visual perspectives. Euclid’s optics theory is based on his seven posits. There are indefinite rays coming from the eyes The rays form a cone of which the vertex is located at the eye and the base is located at the limit of your vision. Things that fall on the cone becomes visible Objects seen at a larger angle appear larger Objects seen at a higher visual ray come out higher The further right an object is stricken by the visual ray, the more right the object is seen Objects seen under more angles are observed more clearly The first three rules help explain concepts of visual rays that comes from the eye like Plato theorized. Rules 4 – 6 explains how the size and position of an object is depended on the angle being observed. The last rule explains the clarity of an object; the further the object, the bigger the visual cone is. This causes less visual rays upon the object, causing a less clear image. One of the greatest followers of Euclid was Claudius Ptolemy. Ptolemy continued Euclid’s theory by adding psychological, physical and physiological to his theory. Ptolemy agreed with Euclid’s rules stating visual rays emerges from the eye is a shape of a cone. Ptolemy added that a visual ray has the same aspects as sunlight. The idea came from Plato’s teachings, which states that when both visual rays and sunlight hit, they will form a homogeneous body. Which means visual light must be a consistent body. Euclid mentioned that there are a medium in between the visual rays, which illustrates why someone cannot see clearly at certain times. Ptolemy disagreed with Euclid on that statement; Ptolemy stated that there is only a single visual ray emerging in the shape of a cone. It will be impossible to see an entire object at one time. He also argues that rays only illustrated the geometry of sight, not reality itself, like Euclid seem to think. Ptolemy also brought bac k Aristotle’s theory of color. Ptolemy added that color produces a modification in the visual cone; Aristotle only explained that color cannot affect the visual cone. In Aristotle situation, it is the transparent medium without the existence of an external light. But sadly, most of Ptolemy work is unclear due to the loss of Ptolemy work. Ptolemy created two geometrical assumptions to Euclid’s theories. First, the clarity of an observed object with the visual cone might vary depending on its position. An object located placed over the main axis is recognized more clearly than an object located in the perimeter of the visual cone. Second, the pinnacle of the visual cone is situating directly at the center of the cornea. Galen Galen, a scientist from the Roman Empire, studied the structure of the eye. Galen would dissect monkeys and oxen to study their anatomy. Galen was able to psychological and physical elements for his theory from these experiments. Pneuma, an optical spirit, travels along the optic nerves connecting the eye and the brain. While in the eye, pneuma meets with air surrounding the eye and changed to match its nature. Because of this, the air converts into an instrument of soul, and becomes perceptive. Galan adapted this theory from the Stoics, Galen also has his own ideas; these entire pneuma take place in the crystalline lens located in the middle of the eye. As a result, the lens is the vital appliance of vision. Impaired vision leads him to this conclusion. The cause of impaired vision falls between the lens and cornea; if removed, you are able to see again. Galen was able to almost fully understand the knowledge of the eye structure from his studies. Galen was able to locate the lens o f an eye and mentioned the existence of the retina, which allowed pneuma to travel through nerved and allows the soul to interact with the images grabbed by the eye. The cornea’s purpose was to be a protective layer for the inner parts of the eye. Modern theorist Young – Helmholtz Thomas Young and H.V. Helmholtz developed the trichromatic theory of color. The theory is based on the observation of the mixing of colors and states that we can create new colors by just mixing the three primary colors; blue, red and yellow. Through many experiments, Helmholtz and Young found out that the vision of color relies on three receptors located in the retina. Each receptor has different spectral sensitivities to wavelengths. The three cones wavelengths are short, medium and long. Each having a specific wavelength and peaks of light absorption; â€Å"long (560nm), medium (530nm), and short (420nm)†. The tree receptors are stimulated by light at different degrees and patters which will result in the formation of a color. Which allows us to determine what color would form if the lights from different wavelengths are combined due to the reaction of each receptor. One of the main supporting evidence for Young – Helmholtz’s trichromatic theory was a color ma tching experiment. This experiment found that a wavelength in one filed is paired by altering the amount of three different wavelengths to one another.

El Cid and Kracauer’s Mass Ornament :: Medievalism Kracauer Film Cinema Movies

The numerous historical films that merely illustrate the past are attempts at deception according to their own terms. Since one always runs the danger, when picturing current events, of turning easily excitable masses against powerful institutions that are in fact often not appealing, one prefers to direct the camera towards a Middle Ages that the audience will find harmlessly edifying. The further back the story is situated historically, the more audacious filmmakers become. They will risk depicting a successful revolution in historical costumes in order to induce people to forget modern revolutions, and they are happy to satisfy the theoretical sense of justice by filming struggles for freedom that are long past.1 Kracauer’s analysis of the historical film culminates in a dismissal of historical, and thereby factual, efficacy. In this circumstance, the period piece can assume an earlier time frame as a departure from the burden of accuracy rather than an acceptance of it. Academic records indicate that El Cid (dir. Anthony Mann, 1961) ignores much of Rodrigo Dà ­az de Bivar’s factual exploits as a warrior for hire, fighting more often for compensation than any religious or moral certitude. Why, then, was this character’s story so appealing as a platform for a historical epic film? El Cid’s historical ambivalence suggests that it’s story is more appropriately detailed for potential aesthetic achievement than realism. Kracauer begins describing the aesthetic condition of the mass ornament as a reference to the Tiller Girls, a performance group based on visual uniformity. He focuses on their performance of emulation and repetition, through which they are â€Å"no longer individual girls, but indissoluble girl clusters whose movements are demonstrations of mathematics.... One need only glance at the screen to learn that the ornaments are composed of thousands of bodies, sexless bodies in bathing suits. The regularity of their patterns is cheered by the masses, 1 This passage is taken from Siegfried Kracauer’s essay â€Å"The Little Shopgirls Go to the Movies.† themselves arranged by the stands in tier upon ordered tier.2† Already, there is an allegory bridging this performance art with the cinema. The masses are clearly the film’s intended audience gathered in a theater, which composes the modern medium for the cinematic ornament. The film’s actors become the performative aspect of this equation, wherein their acting and involvement in a character role, no matter how important, is meager and unnecessary without the remainder of the operative whole. The film opens with a revelatory glance at this phenomenon, as Rodrigo carries a cross through an empty landscape. In retrospect, his great battles and leadership are abstract and ineffectual without the massive army of followers. As the stand-in Christ figure, he showcases the absence of the epic’s ornament: a solitary figure,